Darwin as the New Mythology Essay Example for Free

Darwin as the New Mythology Essay It has been a major struggle for the scientific community to understand the persistence of religious belief. After centuries of writing by rationalist thinkers, it remains a mystery why so many continue to believe in the old gods. The survival of religion has been though revolution, political and economic change and every conceivable alteration of consciousness throughout the ages. â€Å"Common sense† would then say that religion, in some very real sense, is true, is righteous and factual if it has survived so many changes. Buckert, however, holds that the only way to explain this persistence, short of admitting there is much truth behind it, is that it assists humanity in adapting to changing environments: in short, making religion part of the Darwinian universe. This review will revolve around the methods used by the author in deriving his conclusion, really on the basis that his treatments of the specific cases are so lacking in detail as to be purely superficial. Hence, the real meat of the book lies in methodology, the â€Å"suggestion† of alternate ways of looking at religion. Buckert begins by making the claim that nearly all researchers on religion hold: that there are undeniable similarities among all religions, regardless of their background or geographical origin (4-6). There is the ubiquity of prayer and sacrifice, the saturation of symbol and other forms of communication within groups, and ultimately, the creation and maintenance of group solidarity, itself an important ingredient in winning the struggle for survival (13). Ultimately, the book makes a single argument: religion makes sense because it assists in the struggle for survival. Even institutions such as self sacrifice and the rejection of competition among certain religions are in fact adaptive behaviors that maintain the solidarity necessary to function in a hostile world. There is no specific reason who religion and religious ideas specifically are necessary for this, nor does this explain the persistence of belief, though it may offer a suggestion as to its ancient origin–which are two different arguments. One interesting (and irritating) feature of this book is that there is no real â€Å"argument† given in the standard sense, rather than a series of suggestions loosely held together by what might be called â€Å"popular Darwinism. † This singular suggestion, that religion â€Å"works† for maintaining solidarity is certainly nothing new, and offers such a superficial view of disparate religions that it remains merely a suggestion, a means of planting doubts among readers who are followers of a certain religious system. Religions such as Christianity or Islam are described in one or two sentence snippets, clearly â€Å"sacrificing† detail for the sake of a smoothly running argument, the ultimate drawback of this work. Giving this thesis in more detail, the author brings this thesis to bear on such objects as guilt, hierarchy, meaning and gift giving–all of these exist in the realm of biology and the world of problem solving within the context of group solidarity, itself a biological mechanism. Again, all of these are described in a few lines, providing a superficial context for the generalizations upon which the book is based. Guilt, for example (cf 103-105), is the beginning of problem solving. Natural disasters, disease, etc. are inevitably met by questions such as â€Å"why us? † Hence, guilt fixes blame so that the group can then go about the business of reinforcing its solidarity to fix the problem. Uses of guilt and shame are constant to punish deviants and maintain solidarity, not to mention reinforcing the world of hierarchy and authority relations. â€Å"Meaning† is offered, on the most general level possible, as finding a purpose in a universe of â€Å"infinite complexity† (26). Of course, Darwin himself could also serve these ends. â€Å"Sacrifice† is treated in an interesting, yet radically general way, as the utilitarian doctrine as sacrificing the part for the whole. In other words, the author uses the example of an animal chewing off its own foot to get out of a trap. Human sacrifice is something like that. This is the basic structure of the book and the method of generalization. â€Å"Generalization† here is deliberately called a method because the argument only works (or at least works smoothly) when it functions at a high level of generality. A specialized study of religious systems will bring out so many deviations from this general scheme as to render it useless. Hence, it must remain at a superficial level. What is the most significant element of the book, however, is the methodology itself. The best way to understand the flow and structure of this work is to grasp the methodological assumptions that are inherent in it. None of these assumptions are argued for, and it is assumed that readers will agree a priori. a. Objects in the natural world create the consciousness not just of peoples, but of communities. Consciousness is not considered an autonomous object and free will is rejected implicitly, consciousness is created by the existence of objects in space and time, and hence, is controlled by them. b. Putting this differently, Buckert assumes that consciousness is a material object, itself part and parcel of the world of cause and effect. This is tantamount to holding that the religious objects of worship or fetish are not actually real, but are artifacts, in fact, residual categories, of the enslavement of consciousness to the world of matter and competition. Even more, that all religions are like this and have the same root, regardless of the background, geography or time period in which they develop. c. The beliefs and methods of the modern scientific mind and their conclusions are assumed to be true, and hence, any treatment of religion (or any social phenomenon whatever) must conform to their demands. In other words, instead of couching his phrases in terms of religion according to â€Å"natural selection,† Buckert phrases his approach in terms of â€Å"facts† and â€Å"truth† about the world of material bodies and cause and effect, within which consciousness develops and takes its course. Needless to say, this approach undercuts his own claim to objectivity and scientific rationalism. d. Another major methodological assumption here is that all thought patterns, or patterns of consciousness require a cause, and this cause is provided by group solidarity and the struggle for survival. Putting this differently, each pattern of consciousness, that is, any systematized belief system must have its roots in evolutionary biology to be made sense of. This is to say that any thought pattern that can be traced throughout time in some superficially similar pattern must have a cause with roots in biology. Of course, this means that group solidarity is itself a biological function and hence, all forms of thought that reinforce such solidarity. e. A striking claim made implicitly throughout the book (and made the bedrock of the argument) is that religious claims are ultimately false. Better, not so much false or true but beyond such evaluations because the purpose is survival and competition, rather than claims of truth or falsity. Of course, religious devotees regularly make truth claims, and many of these claims are directly detrimental to their survival or flourishing. The answer to these claims can be found in the â€Å"Escape and Offerings† chapter (chapter two), where the author holds that when one can see sacrifice as beneficial (cutting off an arm that could infect the whole body, for example), the personal sacrifices of martyrs, etc, can be explained (34-38). This is the â€Å"fallacy of equivocation,† since one is using the word â€Å"sacrifice† in two very different senses and contexts. One might see the utility in sacrificing one to save the whole, but this has nothing to do with explaining the desire for martyrdom or the sacrifice of millions in persecutions of religion. â€Å"Sacrifice† is here used in two different senses. f. States of consciousness such as guilt or reciprocation make no sense unless placed in a Darwinian context. This is merely the thesis restated. But implicitly, this argues that states such as guilt are residual categories of the evolutionary process, and hence, are not real, they are epi-phenomena at best. The argument comes down to justifying one’s own feelings of guilt by claiming that these guilt feelings assist in the development of group solidarity, and hence, it is acceptable that I feel them. Again, this is equivocation, making the jump from the collective to the individual within the same argument. In fact, equivocation is just as much central to Buckert as anything else, since the entire structure of the book is a regular back and forth between the animal world and the development of human religion. Hence if it can be justified in the animal kingdom, it is justified in human society, and if in human society, then the individual. g. Finally, Buckert fails to see the self-referential argument involved. If thought processes are part of the biological process and creative of social solidarity (or are derivative from it), then the Darwinian consensus of the modern scientific establishment also then falls into this category. Such a consensus assists biology in developing its rhetorical weapons, its receipt of grant money and its social prestige. How are these not nearly identical to the present argument concerning religion? In conclusion, the Buckert book here under review is a series of logical equivocations and false parallelisms. Ultimately, the book might have worked if the field of ancient religion had been its specific base (and it the author’s field, after all), rather than seeking to answer the question of the persistence of religion over time. Religion in its primitive, polytheistic sense might fit Buckert’s thesis. However, the existence of a sophisticated Christianity in the High Middle Ages, on the other hand, does not so fit. Developed, literate religions such as Islam have created as many barriers to group solidarity as catalysts, and hence, the argument breaks down. One might conclude that since modern societies have developed new means of reinforcing group solidarity, this method of explanation then fails (a priori) to explain why billions still believe.

Black Death Essay -- History, Plague

The most immediate effect of the plague was that it led to higher wages for the poor. Prior to the Black Death, Europe was in a state of overpopulation, and famines were a frequent occurrence (Herlihy 39). After the arrival of the first outbreak of plague, however, Europe's population dropped somewhere between twenty-five and forty-five percent (Gottfried 77). Not only that, but, repeated occurrences of plague kept Europe's population lowered, and it did not regain its pre-plague levels until the mid-sixteenth century (Gottfried 134). That overwhelming loss of so many lives turned the situation around, and suddenly Europe was facing a labor shortage. That gave laborers an advantage over their employers. With the lack of workers able to fill positions, people were able to negotiate their employment, demanding more money. If their demands were not met, they were often able to find better opportunities elsewhere (Ziegler 233). This led Matteo Villani to complain in 1363 that, à ¢â‚¬Å"Serving girls and unskilled women with no experience in service and stable boys want at least 12 florins per year, and the most arrogant among them 18 or 24 florins per year, and also nurses and minor artisans working with their hands want three times or nearly the usual pay †¦ † (Herlihy 48-49). That shows, clearly, what was happening at the time. Not only did workers want more money, they expected it. What is more important, however, is that they actually received more pay. In fact, wages doubled overall in the period after the plague. Evidence has shown that during the period between the 1340's and 1390's, skilled construction worker's pay rose from 3d to 5d per day in Southern England, and those who were unskilled saw an increase from 1 ½d to 3d... ...cent (Gottfried 97). That led to a new trend in Europe, one where many landlords, unable to obtain a profit from their lands, leased their lands to the serfs for a cash rent, and many became absentee landlords (Gottfried 138). For instance, on one manor in the baliwick of Clare, most of the lands were being leased out by 1380 (Ziegler 239). In another example, in Witchurch England in 1383 the landlord, Richard Talbot, switched to leasing the lands after attempts to directly farm in failed (Platt 50). And those are just a couple of the many examples of that occurring. What that meant for the serfs who received leases was that they were no longer bound by the chains of serfdom. They could farm the lands as they saw fit, keep what they needed for their families, and sell what they didn't. In return for this they only needed to pay a cash rent to the landlord.

Company †BlackBerry mobiles Essay

BCG matrix is a portfolio planning model, which is used to determine position of the product in the product portfolio of the company. Under this model, company divides its business units into four categories on the basis of combinations of market growth and market share comparative to the leading opponent. This model helps the management to analyze the future growth of different business units. We can take the example of BlackBerry mobiles. It is the Canadian telecommunication and wireless equipment company best known to the general public as the developer of the BlackBerry brand of smart phones and tablets. At one point of time, BlackBerry mobiles were considered as best mobiles in the market. They use to give direct competition to the Nokia and apple mobile phones. In 2011, the market share of the BlackBerry mobiles was 14.3%. But, over the last few years, company market share has declined to 0.6%. In BCG Matrix, we can place the BlackBerry mobiles into question mark category. We have placed the BlackBerry mobiles into question mark category because the market of mobile is increasing with the rate of around 40% but the market share of the BlackBerry mobiles is deceasing every year. Apart from BlackBerry, all other major mobile phone companies such as Samsung, Apple, Huawei, and Lenovo are growing with good pace. Actually, unlike other companies, BlackBerry did not focused on innovation. It was the last major mobile manufacturing company, which introduced the smart phone. They do not able to match the expectations and needs of the people, due to which company lost its market share into the hands of other mobile manufacturing companies. References http://www.quickmba.com/strategy/matrix/bcg/ http://www.gartner.com/newsroom/id/2665715 http://bgr.com/2014/02/12/blackberry-market-share-q4-2013/ http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2014-05-28/blackberry-market-share-to-fall-to-0-3-in-2018-idc-says.html

Business Communication Essay

Introduction This report is based on how nonverbal communication such as body language can be used within the hospitality environment when language becomes a barrier in the form of contact between the service provider and the guests. This highlights how a staff, who works within the hospitality industry who are usually seen on a daily bases dealing with certain number of guests who is unable to speak the local language. These staffs must not only be able to notice the different body language that the guests are sending but to understand what each different body language means in order to provide the guests with the best service possible. This could involve the basic forms of interaction such as eye contact, hand gestures and the physical space between the service staff and the guests (Sana Rynolds & Deborah Valentine 2004, p. 77 – 90). With studies have stating that a majority of communication done is non-verbal and the rest is verbal (Linda Lee-Davis 2007 p. 127), this could heavily affect the communication between the first contact between the guest and staff if the staff is unable to use body language to try and understand what was it meant for. As a tourist travelling to a new destination With more and more tourist having the motivation of traveling to a different country for short break or long overdue holiday, the situation that they might face there is they might not be able to speak the local language and finding a local person that might speak the same language as them might be hard provide that these guests are in a group which have a tour leader together with them. (J Christopher Holloway 2009 p. 62 – 66) Free independent travellers (F.I.T) who on the other hand usually travel alone or without guides, usually have to rely on hand signs and body language in order to get the message across to the local service provider’s staff for examples at the hotel and restaurants and hoping that they would be able to understand what the traveller is saying or tying to say. Should a guest or traveller who know the certain information about body language and is being served by a front line staff, the guest would be able to tell if the staff is providing the guest with the quality of service and value that is expected of the organisation or the staff does not care about the service that he or she is providing. As a staff of a hospitality service provider For staffs who are working in the hospitality industry especially as a front line staff in places such as boutique shops, hotels or restaurants which interacting with guests would be a daily part of the job. These staff would need to have a better understanding of the different types of body languages and what each of these different body languages represent so that the staff would be able to know how the guest or customer is feeling or reacting if the opposite party does not speak the language the staff speaks. As a front line staff in such an industry, being trained to recognise certain body languages that the guests are displaying like nervousness or doubt can help those guests in their problems and make their experience an enjoyable one. While dealing with guests, different forms of body languages like eye contact lets the guests know that the staff is trying to help him or her in their problems and not just for the sake that it is part of their job; this reassures the guest that the staff is trying his or her best to solve their problems, the facial expression can also be used to show the guest that the staff might not understand like nodding of the head for a yes or a no or a simple smile to indicate a simple kind of friendliness toward the guests and the staff is there to help. The staff should also know some information about different cultures so as to avoid offending the guest that they are serving or help as to some cultures it might seem appropriate but to another it might be taken as an offence towards them. (Linda LeeDavis 2007 p. 127) Examples of how body language can be used in such an environment As one example, a tourist visits a place of attraction and is lost among the attraction at the same time, tourist does not speak the local language; in such cases, the tourist would display signs of nervousness and doubt as the tourist is unsure who to ask for help. As the tourist is displaying such signs it becomes a giveaway that the tourist is in need of help, this signs can become visible to a staff working at the attraction and the staff could offer assistance to the tourist. Another example is about front line staffs that work in hotel. They are mainly working in the front of the house, this staffs are expected to portray certain body language clusters like openness, enthusiasm and confidence as these staff will look more approachable for the guest to ask for help, as such presentation would help break down the fear of the guest from approaching the staff to ask for help even if the guest does not speak the language. Such portray of positive body language at the front of the house would also projects a positive image to the guest arriving about the hotel. Conclusion Body language is an important tool that can be used in the hospitality industry as working in this industry, a staff would not only just be meeting guests but at the same time providing a service them. With body language, it can help the staff to take notice of guests that are in need of assistance. Body language can also be used as an expression between two parties that do not speak the same language but with body language, the two parties could understand what each other are saying. Body language can also be used providing the first impression in places like restaurants and hotels as it give a positive image of both the hotel and brand. With the two examples that is show above, its gives a clearer ideas on the different ways how body language can be used to either help a guest/ tourist and to project a positive image.

Free Essays on Exemption Of Grades

Exemption of Grades: Taking away grades at a college or university level will do nothing but hurt the students. Grades are the measurement of the student’s academic performance. Most students who have a high grade point average do not want to be put on the same pass/ fail grading system with students who have a lower G.P.A. Many students with a high G.P.A. take pride in their work and constantly are doing work to keep it that way. There is not a good way to look at taking away grades from students besides for the students who do not try in school. Grades are a way for the colleges and universities to measure the progress over the years. Transcripts from transfer students would all have to be looked at equally besides their sports, and activities. On the pass/fail transcript students who work and have no activities with a 3.6 G.P.A. looks worse then students who have a 2.4 G.P.A. that is in the environmental club. Grades are also a great motivation tactic. Many students would not put a lot of effort into school if they knew that they could pass a course by doing the minimum. The courses at Richard Stockton College of New Jersey that are pass/ fail are looked at by the students to be easier. In the classes most students generally do not learn as much from the lack of motivation. The reason classes are attended, homework is completed, and tests are studied for is to receive good grades. The grading system forces students to excel and makes the students care what grades they get at the end of the semester. Many students have to keep a certain G.P.A. for a certain job or to go to graduate school. Employers will also have trouble hiring employees from a pile of transcripts that only says if a student passed or failed. Most employers look at the students’ academic level as a reference to how much the students know. On many students transcripts over the years there shows an improvement or is steady in grades. If the students G... Free Essays on Exemption Of Grades Free Essays on Exemption Of Grades Exemption of Grades: Taking away grades at a college or university level will do nothing but hurt the students. Grades are the measurement of the student’s academic performance. Most students who have a high grade point average do not want to be put on the same pass/ fail grading system with students who have a lower G.P.A. Many students with a high G.P.A. take pride in their work and constantly are doing work to keep it that way. There is not a good way to look at taking away grades from students besides for the students who do not try in school. Grades are a way for the colleges and universities to measure the progress over the years. Transcripts from transfer students would all have to be looked at equally besides their sports, and activities. On the pass/fail transcript students who work and have no activities with a 3.6 G.P.A. looks worse then students who have a 2.4 G.P.A. that is in the environmental club. Grades are also a great motivation tactic. Many students would not put a lot of effort into school if they knew that they could pass a course by doing the minimum. The courses at Richard Stockton College of New Jersey that are pass/ fail are looked at by the students to be easier. In the classes most students generally do not learn as much from the lack of motivation. The reason classes are attended, homework is completed, and tests are studied for is to receive good grades. The grading system forces students to excel and makes the students care what grades they get at the end of the semester. Many students have to keep a certain G.P.A. for a certain job or to go to graduate school. Employers will also have trouble hiring employees from a pile of transcripts that only says if a student passed or failed. Most employers look at the students’ academic level as a reference to how much the students know. On many students transcripts over the years there shows an improvement or is steady in grades. If the students G...

Water Intoxication and Hyponatremia

Water Intoxication and Hyponatremia Youve probably heard that its important to drink plenty of fluids or simply drink lots of water. There are excellent reasons for drinking water, but have you ever wondered if its possible to drink too much water. Heres what you need to know: Key Takeaways: Drinking Too Much Water It is possible to drink too much water. Overhydration leads to water intoxication and hyponatremia.The problem isnt really about the amount of water, but how ingesting too much water upsets the electrolyte balance in blood and tissues.Drinking too much water is uncommon. If you stop drinking water when you no longer feel thirst, there is no risk of water intoxication.Hyponatremia most often occurs when babies are given water instead of formula or formula that has been mixed with too much water. Can You Really Drink Too Much Water? In a word, yes. Drinking too much water can lead to a condition known as water intoxication and to a related problem resulting from the dilution of sodium in the body, hyponatremia. Water intoxication is most commonly seen in infants under six months of age and sometimes in athletes. A baby can get water intoxication as a result of drinking several bottles of water a day or from drinking infant formula that has been diluted too much. Athletes can also suffer from water intoxication. Athletes sweat heavily, losing both water and electrolytes. Water intoxication and hyponatremia result when a dehydrated person drinks too much water without the accompanying electrolytes. What Happens During Water Intoxication? When too much water enters the bodys cells, the tissues swell with the excess fluid. Your cells maintain a specific concentration gradient, so excess water outside the cells (the serum) draws sodium from within the cells out into the serum in an attempt to re-establish the necessary concentration. As more water accumulates, the serum sodium concentration drops - a condition known as hyponatremia. The other way cells try to regain the electrolyte balance is for water outside the cells to rush into the cells via osmosis. The movement of water across a semipermeable membrane from higher to lower concentration is called osmosis. Although electrolytes are more concentrated inside the cells than outside, the water outside the cells is more concentrated or less diluted, since it contains fewer electrolytes. Both electrolytes and water move across the cell membrane in an effort to balance concentration. Theoretically, cells could swell to the point of bursting. From the cells point of view, water intoxication produces the same effects as would result from drowning in fresh water. Electrolyte imbalance and tissue swelling can cause an irregular heartbeat, allow fluid to enter the lungs, and may cause fluttering eyelids. Swelling puts pressure on the brain and nerves, which can cause behaviors resembling alcohol intoxication. Swelling of brain tissues can cause seizures, coma and ultimately death unless water intake is restricted and a hypertonic saline (salt) solution is administered. If treatment is given before tissue swelling causes too much cellular damage, then a complete recovery can be expected within a few days. Its Not How Much You Drink, Its How Fast You Drink It! The kidneys of a healthy adult can process 15Â  liters of water a day! You are unlikely to suffer from water intoxication, even if you drink a lot of water, as long as you drink over time as opposed to imbibing an enormous volume at one time. As a general guideline, most adults need about three quarts of fluid each day. Much of that water comes from food, so 8-12 eight-ounce glasses a day is a commonly recommended intake. You may need more water if the weather is very warm or very dry, if you are exercising, or if you are taking certain medications. The bottom line is this: its possible to drink too much water, but unless you are running a marathon or are an infant, water intoxication is a very uncommon condition. Can You Drink Too Much If Youre Thirsty? No. If you stop drinking water when you stop feeling thirsty, you are not at risk for overdosing on water or developing hyponatremia. There is a slight delay between drinking enough water and not feeling thirsty anymore, so its possible to overhydrate yourself. If this happens, youll either vomit the extra water or else need to urinate. Even though you might drink a lot of water after being out in the sun or exercising, its generally fine to drink as much water as you want. The exceptions to this would be babies and athletes. Babies should not drink diluted formula or water. Athletes can avoid water intoxication by drinking water that contains electrolytes (e.g., sports drinks).

CRJ 422 Week 1 discussions 1 and 2 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

CRJ 422 Week 1 discussions 1 and 2 - Essay Example Analysis of the traditional cultural versus the interpersonal interest conflict from the angle of social justice, it is important to understand the implication of same-sex marriage to the society that is opposed to the arrangement. Equally, it would be significant to understand the implication of prohibiting same-sex marriage as it will lead to infringing the rights of the minority in the society. In the approach of social justice, Therefore, the main question in the application of the law is whether it is just to protect the minority in the community or to safeguard the rights of the majority in the community. The constitution of the United States through the chapter on the bill of rights stipulates the rights freedoms and privileges that are enjoyed by the American citizens. Nevertheless, in as much as the citizens have their rights stipulated in the Constitution, which is the principle law of the country, the rights at some point, could be seen to interfere with the free operations of the criminal justice system. The fourth, fifth, sixth and eighth amendments of the constitutions are particularly of concern to the criminal justice. Individuals are protected from unreasonable search and seizure of property unless with warrant for a probable cause according to the fourth amendment. This amendment may hinder the operation of criminal justice. An example when the police suspect that evidence of robbery are hidden in a particular location and could be relocated any time, it would take the police time to process the warrant which might be ready after the relocation. In the Fifth Amendment, individuals are protected from self-incriminating and double jeopardy. This amendment prevents the criminal justice from benefiting from the evidence that a criminal may be willing to present (Deborah, 2013). The sixth amendment requires individual proceeds in a court to